Hepatitis is a general term that means inflammation (irritation and swelling) of the liver. Inflammation of the liver can result from infection, exposure to alcohol, certain medications, chemicals, poisons, or from a disorder of the immune system.
Hepatitis A refers to liver inflammation caused by infection with the hepatitis A virus (HAV). HAV is one of several viruses that can cause hepatitis, and is one of the three most common hepatitis viruses in the United States. The other two common types are hepatitis B and hepatitis C; however, there are other named types such as D, E, F, and G, and more types may be discovered in the future. Moreover, these infections are somewhat different from hepatitis A, and from each other.
Unlike hepatitis B and hepatitis C, hepatitis A does not cause chronic (ongoing, long-term) disease. Although the liver becomes inflamed and swollen, it heals completely in most people without any long-term damage. Once a person contracts hepatitis A, they develop lifelong immunity, and rarely contract the disease again.
Because of the way it is spread, the hepatitis A virus tends to occur in epidemics and outbreaks. As many as 1 in 3 adults (>age 19) in the United States have antibody to HAV , meaning they have been exposed to the virus, but most do not become ill. In 2011, researchers report no significant change in seroprevalence (the frequency of people in a population that have particular antibodies, usually reactive against a disease-producing organism in their blood serum) of HAV antibodies in adults before or after the HAV vaccine became available (see reference 3). The number of cases of hepatitis A in the United States varies among different communities, and has been reduced by the introduction of the hepatitis A vaccine. The rate of infection (number of infections per 100,000 people) has declined since 1999 from 6.3 to 0.9 per 100,000 people (2008 CDC statistics). About 2,500 to 3,600 cases of hepatitis A are reported each year in the U. S., but many more people may be exposed to the virus, but have few, if any, report symptoms. Vaccination at age one year may cause the rate and yearly case numbers of HAV to decline.
The Thirty Years War (1618-48), though pre-eminently a German war, was also of great importance for the history of the whole of Europe, not only because nearly all the countries of Western Europe took part in it, but also on account of its connection with the other great Europeanwars of the same era and on account of its final results.
Causes of the war
The fundamental cause was the internal decay of the empire from 1555, as evidenced by the weakness of the imperial power, by the gross lack of patriotism manifested by the estates of the empire, and by the paralysis of the imperial authority and its agencies among the Protestant estates of Southwestern Germany, which had been in a state of discontent since 1555. Consequently the whole of Germany was in a continual state of unrest. The decay of the empire encouraged the other nations of Western Europe to infringe upon its territory. Spain and the Netherlands made use of the period of the twelve-years truce to secure a footing in the neighbouring district of the Lower Rhine so as to increase their strategic base. For nearly a hundred years France had made treaties with many of the estates hostile to the emperor. Henry IV of France was murdered in 1610 at the very moment he was about to interfere in the war over the Jülich-Cleve succession. James I of England was the father-in-law of the head of the Protestant party of action in Germany, Elector Frederick V of the Palatinate, and was inclined to take part in a continental quarrel. Denmark sought obstinately to obtain the power of "administration" over the dioceses of Northern Germany that had become Protestant, and to get control of the mouth of the Elbe. Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32), of Sweden, also showed a strong desire to interfere in German affairs. At the outbreak of the Thirty Years War all these countries, it is true, were prevented from taking part in it by internal difficulties or by wars in other directions. Still the disposition to do so existed everywhere.
Another cause of the war was that the countries forming the Austrian provinces belonged to the empire. For, in the first place, the empire, owing to the geographical position of these countries, became involved in the contemporary affairs in Eastern Europe. The general aristocratic reaction that appeared throughout Europe at the end of the fifteenth and in the sixteenth centuries gradually became so powerful in the eastern and northern countries that a life-and-death struggle between its representatives and the sovereign power broke out at the beginning of the seventeenth century in the more active districts of these sections. Thesecauses gave the first impulse to the Thirty Years War (see section II below). In addition the dynasty ruling the countries forming Austria was a branch of the Habsburg family, whose most distinguished line at that era ruled Spain. From the reign of Philip II (1556-98) the Spanish Habsburgs were the champions of Catholicism in Western Europe and the chief rivals of France in the struggle for supremacy in Europe. From about 1612, especially during the administration of Philip IV (1621-65) and his distinguished minister Olivarez, they displayed increased energy and tried to induce the German Habsburgs to support their plans. The empire was all the more affected by this Spanish policy as the head of the German Habsburgs was Emperor of Germany.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 in Porbandar in Gujarat. After university, he went to London to train as a barrister. He returned to India in 1891 and in 1893 accepted a job at an Indian law firm in Durban, South Africa. Gandhi was appalled by the treatment of Indian immigrants there, and joined the struggle to obtain basic rights for them. During his 20 years in South Africa he was sent to prison many times. Influenced primarily by Hinduism, but also by elements of Jainism and Christianity as well as writers including Tolstoy and Thoreau, Gandhi developed the satyagraha ('devotion to truth'), a new non-violent way to redress wrongs. In 1914, the South African government conceded to many of Gandhi's demands.
Gandhi returned to India shortly afterwards. In 1919, British plans to intern people suspected of sedition - the Rowlatt Acts - prompted Gandhi to announce a new satyagraha which attracted millions of followers. A demonstration against the acts resulted in the Amritsar Massacre by British troops. By 1920, Gandhi was a dominant figure in Indian politics. He transformed the Indian National Congress, and his programme of peaceful non-cooperation with the British included boycotts of British goods and institutions, leading to arrests of thousands.
In 1922, Gandhi himself was sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He was released after two years and withdrew from politics, devoting himself to trying to improve Hindu-Muslim relations, which had worsened. In 1930, Gandhi proclaimed a new campaign of civil disobedience in protest at a tax on salt, leading thousands on a 'March to the Sea' to symbolically make their own salt from seawater.
In 1931, Gandhi attended the Round Table Conference in London, as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress, but resigned from the party in 1934 in protest at its use of non-violence as a political expedient. He was replaced as leader by Jawaharlal Nehru.
In 1945, the British government began negotiations which culminated in the Mountbatten Plan of June 1947, and the formation of the two new independent states of India and Pakistan, divided along religious lines. Massive inter-communal violence marred the months before and after independence. Gandhi was opposed to partition, and now fasted in an attempt to bring calm in Calcutta and Delhi. On 30 January 1948, he was assassinated in Delhi by a Hindu fanatic.
Mohandas K. Gandhi was a Hindu leader in India’s quest for independence from Britain and was a prime apostle of nonviolence — “passive resistance” — as a way to achieve political and social goals. Gandhi was looked upon as a saint by many of his followers and was popularly known as “mahatma,” which is Sanskrit for “great soul.” The image of this small man wearing nothing but a loincloth and shawl and standing up to the great colonial power of Britain gained him, and his cause, worldwide attention.
At age 19 he went to London, where he studied at University College and was called to the bar by the Inner Temple. He opened a law practice in Bombay but had little success and accepted a position as a legal adviser with an Indian firm having interests in South Africa, where he found that Indian immigrants were denied civil liberties and political rights.
It was during his 20 years in South Africa that he began teaching the policy of passive resistance, or Satyagraha, in his struggle for human rights. After World War I, he began advocating passive resistance against Britain as a means to achieve home rule. He became the international symbol of a free India. In his pursuit of independence, he would become accustomed to spending time in prison.
Gandhi believed that through his and his followers’ practice and advocacy of nonviolence Britain would eventually consider violence useless and would leave India — which it finally did in 1947. The next year, he was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic.
At 5 o’clock in the afternoon on Feb. 1, 1948, a funeral pyre of sandalwood bearing his rose-covered earthly remains was set alight by his son on the banks of the holy Jumna River in New Delhi. It was 24 hours, almost to the minute, after the assassin's bullets had shot him down as he was on his way to prayer. His body had been carried in state in a five hour procession over five and a half miles through the streets of Old and New Delhi. His funeral procession and cremation were witnessed by about a million people. His ashes were scattered on the Jumna.
On March 5, 2009, despite direct appeals from the Indian government and a last-minute stay from an Indian court, an auction of Mr. Gandhi’s personal items — including his sandals, bowl, watch and spectacles — was held as planned at Antiquorum Auctioneers in New York City. The items were sold for $1.8 million.
The buyer was identified as Vijay Mallya, an Indian liquor and airline executive who owns the company that makes Kingfisher beer. A representative for Mr. Mallya, Tony Bedhi, did the bidding and later announced that the belongings would be returned to India for public display, but it was not clear whether they would be turned over to the government, as some officials have demanded.
Indian officials had maintained that the auction was illegal, but continued to negotiate with the owner, James Otis, over a possible resolution. Ultimately, the government and Mr. Otis were not successful in halting the auction.
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“When one door closes, another one opens; but we so often look so long and so regretfully upon the closed door, that we do not see the ones which open for us”
